Phonological replacement of loan words used in Indonesian

The aim of the study was to identify the phonological replacement of foreign words (primarily English words) adopted to Indonesian. The method used was descriptive that was to describe how the foreign words change after being adopted into Indonesian and how the phonemes in them change. By adopting a linguistic approach with simple descriptive analysis, the study was successful to analyze many adopted words. The findings of the study indicated that in the process of word adoption some phonemes underwent phonological replacement and some are constant. There are about twenty-six replacements that are successful to reveal, and these replacements are established as formulas (Formulas of phonological replacement).


Introduction
Some formal decisions have been established by the government to support the socialization of Indonesian and the disciplinary of foreign words use. The decisions are 1) instruction number 20, October 28th, 1991 by the Minister of Domestic Affairs, about the socialization of Indonesian, 2) instruction number I/U/1992, by the Minister of Education and Culture, about the improvement of effort in socializing Indonesian, 3) instruction number 344 1021 SJ. March 16th, 1995, by the Minister of Domestic Affairs to the governors, mayors, and regents all over Indonesia, about the discipline of the use of foreign words (PPPBI, 1995). All of these decisions are intended to maintain and to support the position of Indonesian as the national, states, and unifying language, and to enable its ongoing development today and in the future.
The disciplinary of foreign words use as mentioned in the last instruction above is a sign of serious attention paid by the government to the use of foreign words in Indonesian discourse. This means that the people of Indonesia may not use or insert foreign words as they like when they speak Indonesian. Concerning the importance of foreign word adoption, it is necessary to take into consideration the following quotations. Moeliono (1985) gave the following comment "Vocabulary development is needed to enable the expression of concepts and ideas of modern life. The sociocultural horizon that transcends the closed boundaries of life gives rise to new words, terms and expressions in Indonesian.... two aspects deserve attention, respectively, a new lexical source for language development efforts and the formation procedure for the lexical elements".
Another statement says "As experienced by other languages on earth, Indonesian must use foreign words for ideas that have not been known in the culture so far, and there is no exact equivalent for that word in the language of the language. In such a situation, the foreign words are subject to Indonesian rules so that absorption is a form that has undergone adjustment" (PPPBI, 1995).
From the two quotations above we can make conclusions 1) foreign words adoption is absolutely needed in the modernization era, 2) adopted words are absolutely needed in order to express life concepts that are unavailable in Indonesian, 3) the adopted words should be suited to or be adapted with the system in Indonesian (spelling and pronunciation systems), 4) one important thing to consider is the procedure of reconstructing the foreign words to be adopted.
The procedure of reconstructing the adopted foreign words as mentioned above is not less important than the adopted words themselves, since Indonesian as the adopting language has its system and the words adopted from any foreign languages should follow this system. In other words, any words adopted from any foreign language should be adapted with the system in Indonesian.
This research is intended to study the words adopted from foreign languages primarily from English from a linguistic point of view. The main emphasis will be on the phonological replacement of foreign words primarily English words after being adopted into Indonesian.
The idea of choosing this topic "phonological replacement in words adoption" was firstly inspired by the fact of interference made by native speakers of Indonesian in speaking English. They usually replace the English phonemes that are unavailable in Indonesian with Indonesian phonemes that nearly have the same sounds like them, e.g: phoneme / is replaced by phoneme /t/; phoneme // is replaced by phoneme /e/, and so on. From the observation, it is proved that this phenomenon formally occurs in words adoption; the word theory /iri/ becomes "teori"; the word system /sistm/ becomes "sistem". From the background above, the writer is interested to analyze much more how far the phonological replacement occurs in word adoption.

Method of Research
This chapter contains a method of research, source of data, population and sample, the procedure of collecting data, and techniques of data analysis. This research uses a descriptive method. It presents a description of the phonological changes (replacement) of foreign words {primary English words} adopted into Indonesian.
This research covers the foreign words which have formally been adopted into Indonesian and have been used in Indonesian discourse. While the samples cover one up to four adopted words for one phonological replacement.

Techniques of Data Analysis
The data collected was analyzed in the following ways. The adopted words collected from the data resources were juxtaposed with the original words in the foreign languages primarily English words. Then these words were classified according to the phonological replacement. One to four words were taken as examples for one phonological replacement.
The researcher provided a list of phonemes in English and in Indonesian to compare the English phonemes with Indonesian phonemes. The researcher used dictionaries to check the changes of phonetic symbols of phonemes in English words before and after being adopted into Indonesian. The English dictionaries chosen are those using the International phonetic alphabets {IPA}, while the Indonesian dictionary is Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (2017). lounge/laundĵ/ In the presentation above there are eight English phonemes that are used in the English words to be adopted : /i/, /ae/, /ǝ/, /a:/, /e/, /ei/, /o/ and /a/. In the process of words adoption one of these eight phonemes is constant that is phonemes /a/ and the others are replaced by phoneme /a/ (the same phoneme as the constant one) as used in the adopted words (Indonesian words). The orthographic forms: phoneme /i/ → i, e, a, and y, phoneme /ae/ → a phoneme /ə/ → e and a, phoneme /a:/ → a and aa, phoneme /e/ → e, phoneme /ei/ → a, phoneme /o/ → a, and phoneme /a/ → o Phoneme /i/ as a replacing phoneme Juxtaposition:
The orthographic forms : phoneme /i/ → i, y, and u; phoneme /i:/ → i and ea; phoneme /juə/ → u, phoneme /ai/ →i and phoneme /ə/ →ia or io. Phoneme /u/ as a replacing phoneme. Juxtaposition: Ind Eng manuscript/mənjuskript/ /→ (from Latin) In the presentation above there are ten English phonemes that are used in the English words to be adopted :/u/, /u:/, /恀/, /ju∂/, /϶:/, /ju:/, /∂/, /au/, /u∂/ and /ju/. In the process of words adoption one of these ten phonemes is constant that is phoneme /u/ and the others are replaced by phoneme /u/ the same phoneme as the constant one as used in the adopted words (Indonesian words).
The coalition/kəuə'li∫ən/ In the presentation above there are four English phonemes that are used in the English words to be adopted : /ɔ:/, /o/, /ə/, and /əu, əu'ɔ:, əu'ə/. In the process of words adoption, all of these four phonemes are replaced by phoneme /o/ as used in the adopted words (Indonesian words).
The orthographic forms: phoneme /ɔ:/ → au, and o; phoneme /o/ → o; phoneme /ə / → o; phoneme /ə u/ → ou, oo, and au. From the presentation of phonological replacement for vowel phonemes, we can make some notes as follows: Each of the five vowel phonemes in Indonesian as used in the adopted words replaces four to ten English phonemes. Phonemes /a/ and /u/ among them replace great number of English phonemes. Phonemes /a/ replaces eight English phonemes and phoneme /u/ replaces ten phonemes. On the other hand, there is an overlapping since some of the English vowel phonemes here could be replaced by more than one Indonesian vowel phoneme as used in the adopted words (Indonesian words). Those phonemes are /i/, /ə/, /o/, /i:/, /juə/, and /϶:/.
Phoneme /i/ could be replaced by three /i/ /juə/ /u/ Phoneme /϶:/could be replaced by two Indonesian phoneme : /u/ and /e/ . /u/ /϶:/ /e/ Among the twenty two English phonemes (vowels and combinations of vowels) presented above; eighteen phonemes of them undergo phonological replacement. These phonemes are not available in Indonesian and they are replaced by the five vowel phonemes in Indonesian. The other fours vowel phonemes here are constant.
One English vowel phoneme may be represented by one to four orthographic forms and these orthographic forms are different from the phonetic symbols of most of the vowel phonemes here. This phonemenon does not happen in Indonesian since one phoneme may only be represented by one orthographic form and the phonetic symbols are the same as the orthographic forms in Indonesian.
Some of the words used as examples above are derivative words. Example: the word insurance /in∫uərəns/ becomes "asuransi". Suffix /ə ns/ (represented) by ance) is available in this word and phoneme /ə/ in this suffix is replaced by phoneme /a/ as used in the adopted word "asuransi". The combination of vowels primarily the diphthongs covered here are replaced by single vowels in the adopted words (Indonesian words). However, some combinations of vowels could be replaced by combinations of vowels too. There is an English diphthong that is replaced by Indonesian diphthong. This phenomenon could be seen below.
So some English diphthongs are replaced by single vowels and some are replaced by usual combinations of vowels. The only English diphthongs that are replaced by Indonesian diphthongs here are ie and au that are replaced by ia and au.

Consonant Replacement Phoneme /b/ as a replacing phoneme Juxtaposition:
Ind Eng /b/ /b/ tablet tablet/taeblit/ There is no phonological replacement here, phoneme /b/ is constant since it is used both in English words and in the adopted words (Indonesian words).
The orthographic form of phoneme /b/ here is b Phoneme /c/ as a replacing phoneme : Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /c/ /t∫/ cek check /t∫e k/ Actually there is no phonological replacement here but the phonetic symbol changes English uses phonetic symbol /t∫/ fore the some sound as /c/ in Indonesian. So there is only a replacement of phonetic symbol here.
The orthographic from of phoneme /t∫/ here is ch. intensive /intensive/ In the presentation above there are two English phonemes that are used in the English words to be adopted : /f/ and /v/. Phoneme /f/ is constant while phoneme /v/ is replaced by phoneme /f/ (the same phoneme as the constant one), in the process of words adoption.
The orthographic forms of phoneme /f/ are f, ff, and ph, the orthographic form of phoneme /v/ is v. Phoneme /g/ as a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /g/ /g/ sorgum sorghum /sɔ:gəm/ (from French) bagasi baggage /baegidĵ/ garasi garage /gəra:dĵ/ /g/ /dĵ/ gen gen /dĵen/ solfegio solfeggio /solfedĵiəu/ In the presentation above there are two English phonemes that are used in the English words to be adopted : /g/ and /dĵ/. Phoneme /g/ is constant while phoneme /dĵ/ is replaced by phoneme /g/ (the same phoneme as the constant one) in the process of words adoption.
The orthographic forms of phoneme /g/ here are g, gg,gh and the orthographic forms of phoneme /dĵ/ are g and gg. Phoneme /h/ as a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /h/ /h/ higiene hygiene /haidĵ:n/ (from French) There is no phonological replacement here phoneme /h/ is constant since it is used both in English words and in the adopted words (Indonesian words).
The orthographic form of phoneme /h/ is h. Phoneme /j/ is a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /j/ /dĵ/ jargon jargon / dĵa:gon/ jendral genral /dĵenərəl/ bujet budget /bᴧ dĵit/ There is no phonological replacement here but the phonetic symbol changes. English uses phonetic symbol /dĵ/ for the same sound as /j/ in Indonesian. So there is only a replacement of phonetic symbol here.
The orthographic forms of phoneme /k/ here are k, c, q, cc, ch, ck. phoneme /l/ as a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /l/ /l/ label label /leibl/ polusi pollution /pəʻlu:∫ən/ There is no phonological replacement here. Phoneme /l/ is constant since it is used both in the English words and in the adopted words (Indonesian words).
The orthographic forms of phoneme /l/ here are l, and ll. Phoneme /m/ as a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /m/ /m/ tim team /ti:m/ komunisme communism /komju:nizəm/ There is no phonological replacement here. Phoneme /m/ is constant since it is used both in English words and in the adopted words (Indonesian words).
The orthographic forms of phoneme /m/ here are m and mm. Phoneme /n/ as a replacing: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /n/ /n/ nasional national/nae∫ənl/ koneksi connection /kəʻnek∫ə n/ There is no phonological replacement here. Phoneme /n/ is constant since it is used both in English words and in the adopted words (Indonesian words).
The orthographic forms of phoneme /n/ here are n and nn. Phoneme /p/ as a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /p/ /p/ pilot pilot /phailət/ apel apple /aepəl/ /p/ /v/ adpis advice /∂dvais/ /p/ /f/ telefon/telepon telephone /telifəun/ In the presentation above there are three English phonemes that are used in the English words to be adopted : /p/, /v/, and /f/. Phoneme /p/ is constant, phoneme /v/ and /f/ are replaced by phoneme /p/ (the same phoneme as the constant one) in the process of words adoption.
It is necessary to note here that phoneme /p/ is frequently pronounced with aspiration in English words such as /p/ in pilot /phail t/. Aspiration itself can be divided into two kinds: strong aspiration and weak aspiration. Strong aspiration usually occurs when /p/ is between two vowels. (Jackson, 1982:29). Phoneme /p/ with aspiration in English words is replaced by phoneme /p/ without aspiration in the adopted words (Indonesian words).
The orthographic forms of phoneme /p/ are p and pp. The orthographic forms of phonemes /v/ and /f/ are /v/ and /ph/. Phoneme /r/ as a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /r/ /r/ radikal radical /raedikl/ korupsi corruption /kərᴧp∫ən/ ritma/ritme rhythm /riđəm/ There is no phonological replacement here. Phoneme /r/ is constant since it is used both in English words and in the adopted words (Indonesian words). The orthographic forms of phoneme /r/ are r, rr, and rh. Phoneme /s/ as a replacing phoneme: practicle /praektikl/ In the presentation above there are six English phonemes that are used in the English words to be adopted: /s/, /∫/, /z/, /ĵ/, /dĵ/, and /k/. Phoneme /s/ is constant, phoneme /∫/, /z/, /ĵ/, /dĵ/, and /k/ are replaced by phoneme /s/ (the same phoneme as the constant one) in the process of words adoption.
It is necessary to note here that phoneme /t/ is frequently pronounced with aspiration phoneme /t/ with aspiration in English words is replaced by phoneme /t/ without aspiration in the adopted words (Indonesian words).
The orthographic forms of phoneme /t/ are t and tt. The orthographic forms of phonemes /θ/ and /đ/ here is th. Phoneme /v/ as a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /v/ /v/ televisi television /telivi∫ən/ There is no phonological replacement here. Phoneme /v/ is constant since it is used both in English words and in the adopted words (Indonesian words)..
The orthographic forms of phoneme /v/ isv. Phoneme /w/ as a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /w/ /w/ wagon wagon /waegən/ wiski whisky /wiski/ There is no phonological replacement here. Phoneme /w/ is constant since it is used both in English words and in the adopted words (Indonesian words). The orthographic forms of phoneme /w/ are w and wh. Phoneme /x/ as a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /x/ /x/ or /eks/ x-ray x-ray /eks-raei/ /x/ /z/ xilofon xylophone /zailəfəun/ In the presentation above there are two English phonemes that are used in the English words to be adopted : /x/, or /eks/ and /z/. Phoneme /x/ is constant, while phoneme /z/ is replaced by phoneme /x/ (the same phoneme as the constant one) in the process of words adoption. The orthographic forms of phoneme /x/ is x and the orthographic form of phoneme /z/ here is x. It is necessary to note here that there is no special sound replaced by /x/ in English (Lowe, 1987: 256 object /obĵjikt/ In the presentation above there are three English phonemes that are used in the English words to be adopted : /j/, /i/ and /dĵ/. These three English phoneme are replaced by phoneme /y/ in the adoption words (Indonesian words). The orthographic forms: phoneme /j/ →j, y;phoneme /i/ → y; and phoneme /dĵ/ →y, j. Phoneme /z/ as a replacing phoneme: Juxtaposition: Ind Eng /z/ /z/ plaza plaza /pləzə/ (from Spanish 'platha') mezanin mezzanine /mezəʻni:n/ There is no phonological replacement here. Phoneme /z/ is constant since it is used both in English words and in the adopted words (Indonesian words). The orthographic forms of phoneme /z/ are z and zz.
From the presentation of phonological replacement for consonant phonemes, we can make some notes as follows.
Phoneme /f/ could be replaced by phonemes /f/ and /p/. /p/ /f/ /f/ Phoneme /dj/ could be replaced by phonemes /g/, /j/, /s/ and /y/. Some Indonesia phonemes as used in the adopted words could replace more than one English phonemes. They are /f/, /g/, /p/, /s/, /t/, /x/, and /y/. This can be checked in the presentation of phonological replacement of consonant phonemes above.
One English consonant phoneme may be represented by one to six orthographic forms and these orthographic forms are different from the phonetic symbols of most of the vowels phonemes here. This phenomenon does not happen in Indonesian since one phoneme may only be represented by one orthographic from and the phonetic symbols are the same as the orthographic forms in Indonesian.
Some of the words used as examples above are derivative words. Example: the word "sadism" /sei'dizəm/ becomes "sadism", suffix /izəm/ represented by ism is available in this word and phoneme /z/ in this adopted word "sadisme".
Phonemes /q/, /x/, and /c/ are not found to be used in English words (based on the Collins dictionary, 1986), but two of them are used in the adopted words (Indonesian words) : phonemes /x/ and /c/. These two phonemes replace some English phonemes as follows: /z/ /z/ → /zailəfəun/ → (xilofon) /x/ /eks/ /eksraei/ (X-ray) /c/ /t∫/ /t∫ek/ → /cek/ The reality that phonemes /q/, /x/, and /c/ are not found to be used in English words is strengthened by a comment given by Lowe (1987: 256) "...There are fifty main sounds according to Webster's International Dictionary. There are only twenty three effective letters in English alphabets (c, q, x do not symbolize a phoneme)...". This statement is supported by Ellison (1985: 585) as he says "…. Bearing in mind q, c, and x, are superfluous since their sounds can be represented by other letters". This section contains the summary of phonological replacement: